There are several pieces of art I was drawn to this quarter but two that stand out are the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck and the Merode Altarpiece by Robert Campin. Both of these works of art were done in Northern Europe in the fifteenth century. I find this period of art very attractive because of the use of Iconography which is the study of symbols in art. The paintings were layered with stories and ideas. Scholars love this period of art because everyday objects had added meaning.

In the late fourteenth century, there was a rise in the middle class. The patrons supported scholarship, literature, and the arts. Their patronage began the Renaissance, which is French for rebirth, that historians assigned to this period much later. Stylistic characteristics of the Northern Renaissance art were an interest in naturalism, extreme attention to detail, thin layers of oil paint, rich textures, luminous colors, and intuitive perspective. Intuitive perspective is when the perspective is "eyeballed" by the artist.

My first example of the art of this time is The Double Portrait of Giovanni and his Wife. Another title is the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan Van Eyck (pictured above). Jan Van Eyck worked as the court painter for Phillip the Good. Because of this position, he had more artistic freedom than most artists. He gained an international reputation. The Arnolfini Portrait was believed to be a wedding. Jan Van Eyck's signature in the background of the painting above the mirror suggests he may have been functioning as a witness to a ceremony. There are removed shoes in the front left of the painting that may have represented sacred ground where a ceremony may have taken place. The dog located to the right of the shoes could be seen as a symbol of fidelity or faithfulness. Another theory states that the headdress being worn by the wife was only worn by married women. That would mean they were already married in the painting. Yet, another theory is that the wife has passed. Research shows that the wife would have been dead when the painting was created. In the chandelier above their heads, all of the candles above the wife are extinguished and all of the candles above Giovani are lit. That could represent the living and the dead. Around the mirror in the background, there are scenes from the last moments of Christ. All of the scenes with Christ alive are on the left nearest Giovone. All of the scenes referring to christs death are on the right near the wife. So it could be a tribute to his deceased wife.

My second example of art of this time is the Merode Altarpiece by Robert Campin(pictured above). Some great examples of Northern Renaissance art were the painters in the workshop of an artist known as the Master of Flemalle, thought by historians to be Robert Campin. These artists painted the Merode Altarpiece. In the central panel, the angel Gabrielle is letting mary know she will be the mother of Christ. There is a book on the table between them with fluttering pages. This could indicate that the angel has just arrived and the pages are fluttering from the movement. Also, there is a snuffed out candle. Since Gods divinity extinguishes flames when he takes human form, the candle could represent Jesus entering Mary's womb. Above the angel Gabrielle's head, there is a golden ray of light and a little baby Jesus holding a cross. If you follow the direction of the light and the cross, you can see that it is aimed at Mary's womb. There are also Lily's on the table. They are associated with purity. The three buds are a reference to the Trinity. There is a wash basin in the background. One theory is the kettle represents baptism. Another theory is since the kettle is a vessel, it is a reference to Mary being a vessel for Christ. Another representation is Christ coming through the window but the window isnt breaking. This is a reference to the Virgin Mary's purity. In the right panel of this painting, there is a mouse trap on the table and the window sill. Christ was seen as bait to trap Satan. The mouse trap was a symbol of Christ because it would trap mice.

The amazing thing is I described about half of the symbolism in both paintings. I love that about this time in art history. There is so much depth to the art. I am intrigued for the same reasons the scholars were, that everyday objects had added meaning.

The 18th century was a period of social and economic transformation. The artists and intellectuals who were inspired by the classical past contributed to early neoclassicism. Neoclassicism is both a way of viewing the world and a visual style. Neoclassical paintings show frozen forms, tight compositions, and a shallow space of ancient relief sculpture. This type of art was viewed as the embodiment of timeless civic and moral lessons. They were frequently displayed to inspire patriotism and nationalism. Neoclassicism was often used in Britain, America, and France.

Angelica Hauffman was a Swiss History painter between 1741-1807. She trained in Italy. Angelica Hauffman was one of the best painters of early neoclassicism. She arrived in London in 1766 and inspired British artists to paint classical history paintings and British patrons to buy them. In 1768, she was one of the only two women artists among the founding members of the Royal Academy.

SAPPHO by ANGELICA KAUFFMANN

This painting dates from 1774. In 1775 it was presented in the Royal Academy of Art. This painting was always in private hands.

The painting was originally titled "Lady as Venus with Cupid by Her Side." In 1949, it was changed to "A maiden with Cupid." There was an incorrect translation and the identity of Sappho could not be discovered. The translation read "So come again and deliver me from intolerable pain." These are lines 25-26 from Sappho's first Ode to Aphrodite.

Angelica Kauffmann painted this piece during a time when she was depressed. Her marriage had been annulled. She had been the victim of a husband that was a bigamist. Sappho was a female Homer, an epic poet, with beautiful poetry. She was married with children, but her poems desribed a love for women. She resided on an island called Lesbos. That is where we get the name "Lesbian" for a female homosexual.

This painting is a great example of Kauffmanns' neoclassical style. You can see how the light is diffused and there are no harsh lines. There is not a perfect photographic sense. Everything is very soft. The poem on the scroll is to Aphrodite and her son Exos is standing next to her. There are two possible translations for the text on the scroll. The first is by a former Ringling Curator, "So come again and deliver me from unbearable pain". The second is from an art book and says "Come to me my beautiful one and I shall be free of all sorrow."

Kauffmann drew herself as Sappho in this painting. Henry Fuseli, a Brittish painter, said "her heroines are herself." If you compare Sappho with her two self portraits, you can see the resemblence in the shape of the head, the mouth, and especially the eyes.

Sappho may have been aquired after its first exhibition by John Baker Holroyd when the painting was sold. There are no recorded earlier sales. It is possible that Angelica Kauffmann met the Holroyd's in Ireland when she was there between 1771 and 1772.

Angelica Kauffmann befriended famous poets, scientists, and artists of her time. They were drawn to her literacy and gracefulness. She became the most famous female painter of the 18th century.

REFERENCES

http://www.jstor.org/pss/876642

http://www.ringlingdocents.org/kauffmann.htm

http://www.artchive.com/

During the Baroque period, art became an instrument of propaganda and also a means of leading the viewer to a newly inspired Christian practice and belief. The 17th century rejected the ideals of the Renaissance. Examples of these ideals were humanism which consisted of cultural and educational reform. Then there was naturalism, representing a subject without stylization or interpretation. Another example was idealism, a standard of perfection. The last was visual harmony, forming a consistent and orderly whole. Baroque style would evoke intense emotional responses from the viewer. The images, or subjects, were dramatically lit. They embraced Classicism which involved a more moving and dramatic variant of Renaissance ideals and principles. You would see balanced compositions and diagonal movement. Also rich colors were used and visual references to Ancient Greece and Rome were made.

There are two works of art that show the comparisons and contrasts of these periods well. The first example of Baroque style was created by an artist called Gianlorenzo Bernini. He worked as the Vatican architect. Berninini admired antique art and thought of himself as a classicist. He broke through tradition and brought us to a new baroque style. He first became famous as a sculptor and continued to work as one throughout his career. He created a statue of David in 1623. The sculpture was created for a nephew of Pope Paul V. This version of David introduced three dimensional composition. David is bending at the waist and twists to one side. The statue shows action, tension, and determination. The twisted figure gives the viewer the impression that there is someone behind them that the statue is in motion towards. Thus, the viewer becomes part of the action.

The second work of art that shows the Renaissance style was by Michelangelo. Michelangelo Buonarroti was born in Caprese. He came from a poor but noble family. He became an apprentice at the age of 13. Michelangelo was a poet as well as an artist. Michelangelos' David, created between 1501 and 1504 was so admired that the city counsel placed it in the principal city square. The statue has the antique ideal of the athletic male nude. The expression and gaze are new for this time. He seems to be mentally preparing himself for battle. He is a mere youth confronting a giant warrior. The statue stands for supremacy of right over might.

Michelangelos' David Berninis' David

You can see in the images above that the Renaissance art kept viewers at a distance. The art was created to invoke thought in the viewer. The Baroque art engaged viewers as participants in the work of art. The viewer becomes part of the action as the twisted form includes the real background in the art and gives the viewer the sensation there is someone behind them that the statue is aiming at. The Baroque style of Berninis' David also shows intense drama in the facial features and movement throughout the drapes of cloth. The idea was to show so much drama that you would get emotional looking at it. Michelangelos' David shows the intent of motion. You can read anguish in his expression. But it demonstrates the educated thoughtfulness of the Renaissance. They expected the viewer to have pensive thought over a piece, rather than emotion.

I don't have a preference to either of these periods. Both the Renaissance and Baroque periods contributed overwhelmingly to Art History.

Albrecht Durer was one of the most popular artists of the German Renaissance. He lived in Nuremberg. Nuremberg, at the time, was a cultural center with a group of internationally renowned artists.

Durer did not follow in his fathers footsteps to become a Goldsmith. Instead he wanted to be a painter. Although, Durers early training as a Goldsmith is reflected in his attention to detail. He traveled to Italy in 1494. This first trip to Italy introduced him to Italian Renaissance ideas. There he discovered a concept of artists as intellectuals, sellers of ideas as well as pictures. He was introduced to the idea of an artist as a creative genius.

When he returned to Germany, he published a woodcut series on the Apocolypse. It consisted of a title page and 14 full page illustrations with text on the back of each of them. A woodcut, also known as a print, is a technique where an image is carved onto the surface of a block of wood. The images on the surface will show black and the rest will show white. This was commonly done on Beechwood. Durer probably hired a skilled carver to cut his wood blocks. The carvers had to be trusted to follow his drawings perfectly. Durer made his fortune from these prints.

Durer became more familiar with Italian art on his second trip to Italy. He set out to reform the art of his own country. He published writings and manuals that covered Renaissance problems with perspective, proportions, and techniques.

You can see the Italian influence on Durer with a self portrait done in 1500. It was signed "Albrecht Durer of Nuremberg...age 28." This self portrait was not done to advertise himself as an artist. The portrait is a full frontal unlike the three quarter pose of the Renaissance. It reflects other images of Christ that were popular in Northern Europe. You can see the Naturalism with Durer changing his own hair color to look more like christs'. He believed that artists were creative geniuses, possibly God-like. He wrote " The more we know, the more we resemble the likeness of Christ who truly knows all things." The triangular composition of this piece reflects the High Renaissance, but it also shows the Northern European influence with the lifelike look. There is such amazing attention to detail. There is a glow to the skin, texture of the hair, and the reflective quality of the eyes. Also, the way Durers' hand rests on the fur of the collar shows a common pose of the hand with other depictions of Christ during the Renaissance. It is interesting that the gaze is directed at the viewer. It appears to me that the left eye is set in a direct stare (from the onlookers point of view) while the right eye is looking slightly to the right. I'm not sure if this is done intentionally to give an unsettling feel or not. If you cover the left eye with a finger, you may see it too. (Its possible I have just been looking at this painting too long).

All of Durers' art is a tribute to the way he masterfully crafted a paintbrush. It is no wonder he was one of the most popular artists of the German Renaissance.

Mannerism

Mannerism developed in Rome and Florence in the 1520's. Mannerism comes from the Italian maniera which means style. Artificiality, grace, and elegance became priority over the High Renaissance characteristics of balance and lifelike references. Architects began using the Mannerist style and designed buildings that were off balance and not uniform. Painters began working with the Mannerist style. Their figures became elongated, they held complicated poses that seemed to defy gravity, and they used enigmatic( perplexing or mysterious)gestures. Often times the figures were twisted.

One painting of this time is the Madonna With The Long Neck by Parmigiano. There is a figure of the Virgin Mary in the center. Her figure is distorted with massive legs and the lower torso is elongated. The size and length of the legs and torso don't match the upper bodies narrow shoulders. It appears that the Mary is seated on a throne, but there is no throne in the painting. The baby Christ in her lap appears to be in a pieta. The body of the Christ child has an elongated Torso and left leg. There are pillars in the background that don't connect to anything, therefore they are not supporting anything. There is a very small St.Jerome in the right hand corner (the onlookers right). He is grossly out of proportion to the rest of the figures in the painting. Parmigianino is presenting a well-known image in a fashion to unsettle viewers and it is very effective. The Virgin Mary also seems too large for the picture. It appears as if she stood up she would hit her head. Although the figures are distorted and the painting is unsettling there is still an elegance about this painting. That was another characteristic of this period, to create an elegant feel amongst all of the paintings awkwardness. I don't get that sensation from the next painting we are about to discuss.

I would like to talk about Pontormo's Entombment. The background is grey and shadowy. This gives the piece no sense of placement. Some of the figures seem to come into the viewers space. Several of the images seem off balance because they are on tiptoes. The painting represents a moment just after Jesus is removed from the cross. The figures are pausing to get a better grip on the body of Jesus. The use of colors is very striking. Bright pinks and blues are mixed with olive,brown, and grey hues. One of the figures crouching in the front of the painting holds a gaze directed towards the viewers, drawing them in to the unsettling painting.

The Madonna With The Long Neck by Parmigiano held an elegant feel. Also the colors blend nicely. The figures elongated bodies add to the elegance. The painting by Pontormo gives me a sense of anguish when I look at it. The colors do not blend. The bright colors suggest a happy or joyous theme to the story, but when you go deeper into the painting you see the darker hues and the sadness. The elongated figures seem dark and creepy.

It is amazing to me that two paintings, both done in the Mannerist style, can have such a dramatically different effect on the viewer. Both paintings have elongated figures, both paintings seemed confusing by the tricky backgrounds, and both depict an unsettling theme. And still, with all of those things in common, I couldn't sleep in a room with Pontormo's Entombment hanging on the wall.

The early renaissance seemed to start the humanism period of the renaissance. Humanism, by definition, was an activity of cultural and educational reform. The idea was to enhance the civic community. Italian writers of the time emphasized a human beings potential for individual accomplishment. The Italian humanists saw an era of rebirth, or renaissance, when humanity began to emerge from a stagnet state. They focused on the classical past for inspiration. This idea led them to focus on Ancient Rome. Artists mirrored the humanists and their focus turned to ancient Roman sculpture and architecture for inspiration. Thus, the art of the time took on a look of perfection and idealism of the human form.

Other influences of this time was the use of fresco, which was paint on top of plaster. Fresco allowed the artist to have a wider variety of pigments, allowing for greater detail and more human looking paintings.

Linear perspective became popular. Linear perspective is space aligned with an implied point that converges on a single point on the horizon. This concept draws the viewer into the picture. By using this concept, artists were able to give their art a dimensional feel that seemed true to the real world.

Donatello produced the first life size male nude of his time, a bronze statue of "David" in 1446-1460. The torso and the muscular definition of the arms and chest gives the viewer the sense of an ideal form, or perfect form. There is a slight tilt to the hip to give the statue a more human stance. Instead of the statue looking like it is posing, it looks more like a position you would see several people assume just walking down the street if they paused to look at something. The detail in the expression is another example of an idealistic or perfect form. There are no pimples or lines or anything to distract the viewer from the look of smooth, perfect skin.

Leading into the High Renaissance period, the human form or anatomy is refined even farther. An example of this is Michelangelo's statue of "David". According to the book, Michelangelo was commissioned for a statue of David, the biblical hero. It was finished in1504. The "David" was done so well that the city council put it in the main city square. It represented a reminder of Florence's public status. The statue depicts the perfect male figure. The detail in the muscles is incredible. Its as though the protruding tendons in the neck are real. David has a furrowed expression on his brow that gives him a look of facing danger. Since this statue represents a male probably in his twenties, his expression reflects a a young mans expression of danger ahead and concern. My attention is brought to the hands of David. They have tendons leading to the fingers and the detail on the left thumb looks like a real fingernail. The statue of David is a great example of humanism being reflected in the 16th century. David is an example of what Michelangelo's artisitic genius pictured as an ideal male.

Fresco was also still being used at this time. Oil paint also became a popular medium. With the combination of more colors available to the artist and linear perspective being mastered over this time, its no wonder the art of the renaissance period is so beautiful.